The Advancement, Success and Challenges of Women in Female Dominated Fields

Abstract
Women have historically chosen, and been chosen for, stereotypically female roles in careers that value nurturing, attending, organizational, administrative and other soft skills based on commonly held gender schemas. Despite their success and dominance in these fields, much research indicates success can only be measured when these fields are gender-balanced. The female fields as well as the male fields are suffering from the imbalance, despite some benefits to women working with women. Further, educators and recruiters are encouraging women to pursue traditionally male jobs. I will uncover society’s ideas of what makes a job “female” oriented, and how the public and potential job candidates perceive these jobs versus “male” jobs such as science, construction, engineering and management. Women in jobs where they are the majority face unique challenges, both with their supervisors and peers. I will research the overall climate of these women to women relationships in such fields, and gather information to support the idea that women experience more autonomy, support, and self-confidence – and less conflict and depression- in their fields when they report to women supervisors and have women coworkers. Finally, I will address the problem of negative reactions to males working in female-dominated fields and women attempting work in male-dominated fields.

Women face unique challenges in any career. But even today, they find themselves divided with men into jobs that were traditionally held by one gender or another. Advances in various male- or female-dominated fields have been made to specifically attract the other gender to the job type, to allow for cross-gender communication and interest among both groups. However the gender schemas deeply ingrained in our society ensures that certain job paths will always be tied to one gender or another. This paper will help illustrate why that might be the case, and it will also investigate the on-the-job challenges and successes that are noted in female-dominated career fields.
In the past decades, women traditionally held the roles that society could place them neatly into: mothers, maids, teachers, and caretakers. This put them at a distinct disadvantage since they relied on men to provide their livelihood and support them economically. However for the lower class families women were needed and expected to work to support their families, and they brought income in by the aforementioned jobs, as well as factory and assembly work which did not require education (which they were also socially barred from.) As time passed women sought work not for their families, but for themselves, and for networking with other career-minded women. Today women are expected to hold jobs for all kinds of reasons, and they work alongside men without issue in many instance. However certain job fields remain almost exclusively male- and others exclusively female.
In study after study, research indicates it is best to teach girls from an early age about their options in the workforce. Girls, when exposed to the specific job tasks involved in careers such as engineering and science, respond well and show interest in learning. They also feel comfortable in informal settings, with other females, working hands on to discover some of the tasks and learn how they can succeed in such fields. The importance of holding job fairs and teaching girls about available careers at an early age is that they recognize what is actually attainable, and see women working in the fields for themselves. Without a role model, they cannot visualize themselves in the field. (Cutshall, 2002.) Women are not necessarily thought to be subpar at any one job, however, they are consistently evaluated differently than men when performing the same task types. The distortion in thinking is thought to be based on the fact that women are perceived as stereotypically not having the qualities that men have to complete the job best. Even when deemed successful, women are vulnerable to biased judgments. (Fuchs et al, 2004.)
There are many theories which support the idea of transitioning what was thought of as “women’s work”, such as parenting and caretaking, to men, and to transition “men’s work”, such as the tough working roles in scientific, manufacturing, construction or heavy equipment industries. “One consequence of the facilitation that occurs when men and women occupy work and family roles is that strong commitment to one role does not preclude strong commitment to the other.” (Barnett & Hyde, 2001.) Unfortunately, moving around gender roles is not as easy as it seems. Socially, it is still unaccepted by many people; there exist unseen “penalties” for women, especially, who go above and beyond their given stereotypes to succeed at typically male-oriented tasks and jobs. Women are not judged to have the qualities necessary to do these male-oriented jobs upfront; research indicates they have to usually go through a “probation” period to prove themselves worthy of being able to succeed at such jobs. “We are suggesting that the mere recognition that a woman has achieved success on a traditionally male task produces inferences that she has engaged in counter-normative behavior- and therefore causes similarly negative consequences.” (Fuchs et al, 2000.) Because this negative consequence surfaces, a woman in this position is thought now to be hostile in other areas of her life as well. The authors refer to this as the “boomerang effect” (Fuchs et al, 2000.)
The social push for women to hold more “male” jobs has been much greater than the opposite. In many fields people are beginning to understand the effects of gender imbalance and demanding that it end. This phenomenon is especially apparent in the field of education, where research indicates that the teaching positions requiring little or no education are held by women, and the higher level or college level professor positions are held mainly by men. Michael Jenkinson’s article brings to light one reason for the early shift: “Men remained out of elementary positions…the predominant social view had shifted and men who had worked with little children were often suspected of pedophilia or homosexuality.” Also, women started working in education at the beginning of the 20th century, when it was still a relatively low-paying job. Men gravitated away from these jobs and toward the higher paying, higher status jobs, including some in higher education. Also it is thought that women naturally transitioned into early childhood education after having their own children and gravitating toward the role of caretaker rather than teacher.
A male teacher in Sue Ferguson’s article mentioned after a day of taking care of young children, he felt more like a parent than a teacher. “More like a mother, you might say.” (Ferguson, 2005.) In the article “Looking for Mr. Chips,” the author explains that men believe that they cannot be innately nurturing. He also says men are turned off – and turned away- by the low salaries. In addition, men fade out of the profession quicker than women do. The fact that women tend to stick around for the long haul could be the reason why we associate the job with women, and why the salaries have not continued to increase to the levels of other professions.
Education is only one example of a well-known profession where gender imbalance exists. Today, many high-powered companies have recognized their authority with society and put into place directives and initiatives to address not only the lack of women in their management but also the lack of gender-specific training and role modeling. PepsiCo, Goldman Sachs, Pricewaterhouse Coopers, and Scotiabank (of Canada) have all made steps to increase women in their workplaces and increase awareness of gender issues on the job. For example, “Scotiabank introduced an executive speaker series in which high-level women from the bank are interviewed before an audience of mid- and upper-level female managers. The interviews are then made available to all employees online.” (Mattioli, 2007.)
Nursing is another field which has traditionally fallen into female hands. Again the themes of nurturing and caretaking have stereotypically been womens’ jobs, probably due to the fact that they carry children and gravitate toward their care early in their lives. In Lisette Hamilton’s article, a male nurse in Miami states that he has never felt stymied or hindered in any way during his extensive schooling and eventual rise to nursing. In years past, the author quotes doctors as saying men were kept from being gynecologists or involved with women’s health issues. But that is really not the case today. However other nurses in the article note specific and deliberate acts of stereotyping and workplace prejudice. One male nurse explained during his early years that other women nurses made the workplace hostile for him. Nurses would say to him, “You’re not a medical doctor, you can’t go into labor and delivery” (even though other female nurses were allowed to do so. Obviously this hampered not only his learning on the job, but also his social interactions. When he finally had had enough of this treatment he approached the (male) doctor of the rotation directly, and was met with apologies and acceptance by the staff after that. But it only lasted a while, and the male nurse finally quit out of frustration. He now practices nursing in a psychiatric hospital where the differences in genders at work are much less apparent and less hurtful.
Another male nurse interviewed said he began his career in the 70’s at a hospital in Oklahoma. He wore his hair long, and the female nurse supervisor would make fun of him, saying long hair and men didn’t mix- and neither did men and nursing. “Talk to male nurses, and you’ll find that while they love the profession, they haven’t enjoyed being treated like women,” the author quoted Bruce Wilson, PhD, a nurse and professor in Texas. He explains that people act confused, as though they believe nursing is not a career, but a gender choice. He also mentions that nursing is behind the times when it comes to recruiting practices. The face of nursing is represented by a woman- usually a Caucasian woman.
On the AAMN, the American Assembly for Men in Nursing, male nurses and doctors join the board to come up with programs for recruiting and awareness in the field of male nursing. Karen Morin, PhD, says the membership made her aware of the subtle discrimination happening around her, and the biases that even she herself held. Many women and men on the board share discussions about emotions and situations on the job and how men react to them and deal with them. The women on the board have expressed that men are upfront about demanding good working conditions and fair pay, and so they have come a long way in making strides toward society’s gender views about the career. When studying reactions of surveys and general working environments, the board found something intriguing: whereas women were assertive about their jobs in nursing and about achieving empowerment for their own careers, male nurses were also aggressively pursuing empowerment for the entire nursing profession. In other words, they strive to make nursing more manly and more authoritative in people’s eyes. Perhaps it is not acceptable for them to entertain nursing as a career unless it meets the gender schemas of what is considered male: strength, authority, power, assertiveness. Some of the studies done by board researchers have come to the conclusion that if female nurses had placed as much emphasis on the acceptance of the profession as male nurses are now doing, the nursing profession would not be so historically imbalanced. It is the males who are making the hardest “push” toward male nurse acceptance, and that’s the reason for its current success, and for the increased numbers of males who lean toward nursing as a career today.
In contrast, women working together in female-dominated fields face unique challenges in their workplace and social interactions. There is also a generational gap which comes into play with many of the women who held certain types of jobs, such as administrative work. In this type of career, years ago, older women who would not or could not advance to a higher level would stay in these positions until retirement. In the 1970’s and 80’s, women shied away from these types of secretarial and clerical work in search of something more fulfilling and less gender-oriented. Today, many young workers who are either single parents or non-college educated high school students are back to seeking administrative work, particularly females. This creates an age gap between the older woman on the job for years and their much younger coworkers who they sometimes are expected to train or to supervise. Male managers, by contrast, act in familiar patterns with their male subordinates- “paternal and jocular” (Zaslow, 2006.) Also, research by the Women Presidents Organization shows that where men admit to learning from their higher ups, younger women are not as likely to agree. Only 53% of young women in the workplace said they learn from older coworkers, and only 23% of them said their older coworkers “energize me and bring new ideas to the table.” (Zaslow, 2006.)
Women are so endangered in management roles that they become cutthroat with one another instead of assisting. A female of baby-boomer age may be uncomfortable helping or training a woman who may have her job next, since there exists much more age discrimination against women then men. Or she may not be as willing to be a younger woman’s mentor, since times are changing and women no longer accept help as readily. Also, older female workers don’t know how to be a mentor- all of their mentors were men, since they did not have many female managers to report to before the 1970’s. Therefore, they may not be willing to accept the role or even agree with it. Women used to work because they had to, not because they wanted to. Today it is different and women seek assistance from others, read, and complete higher levels of education so they can succeed in life financially and be taken more seriously at work. Today’s women are fulfilled emotionally by their jobs (or at least, they want to be) and that changes the relationship between older and younger women in the workplace. Pamela Lenehan, who runs a consulting firm, suggests that the female mentor/protégée relationship should be more informal to avoid discomfort and jealousy. “Never ask, ‘will you be my mentor?’ It’s like asking, ‘Will you be my valentine?’” she says. (Zaslow, 2006.)
Greenberg et al (2005) also mention the hardships facing modern female mentoring interactions. Recent research has “emphasized women’s difficulty in developing supporting mentoring relationships.” The article suggests that the problem may be fundamentally based as well as generationally based. Women simply find it hard to occupy both feminine and leadership roles at the same time. However, regardless of whether a female is mentored by anyone, her immediate boss needs to hold the same priorities for her as she feels are important to the task at hand and not to the gender that she is. Because female and males are seen as having different qualities at work, their success is based on whether or not they succeed at making these gender schemas come true. “In turn, this incongruity leads to both negative evaluations of women’s potential for leadership as well as their actual work performance.” (Greenberg et al, 2005.)
Research about the female supervisory role tends to be unclear and sometimes conflicting. For example, studies by various consulting firms and social psychologists show that women with female supervisors receive the least amount of mentoring and support; but women still prefer female bosses to male. In turn, female supervisors provide more psychological support to their subordinates who are female, versus male. Also, women who had female supervisors were shown to have lower titles and decreased job responsibilities when compared to male workers with female supervisors. Perhaps this indicates that female supervisors keep some of the work for themselves, fearful of the delegation resulting in another woman receiving credit for her own work. Greenberg’s article brings up the point that women supervisors must also take on the important task of “assisting their female subordinates…in overcoming the (previously mentioned) strains associated with their dual role expectations.” Therefore, perhaps woman shy from taking on a more aggressive role with mentoring and coaching with their female subordinates because it requires a more delicate balance of leadership and feminine expectations.

References

Barnett, R.C., & Hyde, J.S. (2001). Women, Men, Work and Family: An Expansionist Theory. American Psychologist, Vol. 56., Iss. 10, 791-796.

Cutshall, S. (2002). Not Just a Guy Thing: Women Encouraged in Non-Traditional Fields. Techniques, Vol. 15, Iss. 1.

Ferguson, S. (2005). Looking for Mr. Chips. Maclean’s, Vol. 118, Iss. 10.

Fuchs, D.; Heilman, M.; Tamkins, M.; & Wallen, A. (2004). Penalties for Success: Reactions to Women who Succeed at Male Gender-Typed Tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 89, No.3, 416-427.

Greenberg, E.; Grunberg, L.; & Moore, S. (2005). Worker Well-Being and Supervisor Gender. Women and Management Review, Vol. 20, Iss. 2.

Hilton, L. (2001.) A Few Good Men. NurseWeek,Vol 23, Iss 5.

Jenkinson, M. (1995). Women Everywhere. Alberta Report News Magazine, Vol. 22, Iss. 39.

Mattioli, D. (2007). Four Companies Recognized for Efforts to Promote Women. Wall Street Journal- Career Journal. Retrieved June 28, 2007 from http://www.careerjournal.com/myc/diversity/20070130-mattioli.html

Zaslow, J. (2006). Differences are Emerging Among Women Employees. Wall Street Journal-Career Journal. Retrieved June 29, 2007 from http://www.careerjournal.com/columnists/movingon/20060505-movingon.html

Race and the Media: Civil Rights Movement

ROSA
by Rita Dove

How she sat there,
The time right inside a place
So wrong it was ready.

That trim name with
Its dream of a bench
To rest on. Her sensible coat

Doing nothing was the doing;
The clean flame of her gaze
Carved by a camera flash.

How she stood up
When they bent down to retrieve
Her purse. That courtesy.

_”ROSA” from On the bus with Rosa Parks, W.W. Norton & Co.

It may be said that without Rosa Parks’s refusal to give up her bus seat in 1955, the Civil Rights Movement as we know it today may never have happened in quite the same way. How might the media have influenced those involved to move to action and to change their views about black rights? The media may have ignited a spark in an otherwise docile public on the issue of Civil Rights after the Montgomery Bus Boycott. In the same light, even today racial issues receive media coverage and influence everything from the government to to public schools. What role does the media play in determining the public view of something like the Civil Rights Movement of the 50’s and 60’s?
To discuss the role of the mass media in highlighting and stimulating the Civil Rights Movement, the best research method to use would be the ontological method. Using this approach, we can ascertain how something came to be the way it is today- the study of how something came into being in the first place. First, we must define the proofs of existence that are evident in the artifact or the subject. For example, we know that the media frames much of the news that is reported today. This information needs to be translated into a specific time and event to show that during the Civil Rights Movement, the media provided a viewing lens for the public audience with which to discern the events taking place.
The second step of the ontological research approach involves analysis of the dominant theories present in the subject. For this paper, that would translate to discussion of the events of the Movement and specific examples about how the media transmitted these events to the public. The third step would be to discuss the implications of the analysis which are critical to the future of the subject. This would involve a discussion on why the media framing of the Civil Rights Movement was important during its early days and what the mass media has become today, in regards to coverage of current racial events and issues.
Rosa Parks’ decision started a mass boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. For 381 days, blacks refused to ride city buses because of the ordinances that made them sit in the back. Their actions incited violent attacks on their communities, churches and homes. In November 1956, the U.S. Supreme Court outlawed any segregation for seating on city buses, and blacks began to ride the buses again, sitting lawfully wherever they pleased. But Rosa continued to receive threats to her family and letters promising action against her because of her decision. Due to these threats she moved herself and her family to Detroit, Michigan, where she was subsequently hired as a House of Representatives staff assistant.
There were other events, too, which helped spur the Movement. In 1954, the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) pioneered a landmark Supreme Court Case, Brown vs. the Board of Education, which brought to light the issue of school segregation. Then came the murder of Emmet Till, a 15-year old Mississippi boy who was allegedly caught whistling at a white woman. He was subsequently killed by two white men, who were then acquitted of all charges. The media especially in the North descended upon the location of the murder, Tallahatchie County, with negative press coverage of both the trial and the acquittal of the two men. The coverage spawned a bumper sticker campaign among Mississippi’s whites, who plastered their cars with the phrase, “Mississippi: The Most Lied About State in the Union.” (Parry, 2002.) The Till case, in particular, received unprecedented media coverage, which helped elevate the status once again of the plight of blacks in the American south.
Much of the information transmitted among blacks in the south during the early days of the Civil Rights Movement was by word of mouth. Word picked up speed and details and spread quickly among the Southern black communities. But the media elite fed exclusive stories to their audiences and the information was considered highly competitive. (Nelson, 2003.) Jack Nelson, a reporter for the Los Angeles times in the 1960’s, said that …”many reporters struggled to remain objective…(they) became very sympathetic to the Movement…you couldn’t be human and not be affected deeply by these kinds of experiences, in these kinds of settings.” Because the coverage often involved massive demonstrations and riots, news media often descended on such scenes with equal footing, and were more likely in these situations to share their information to obtain the best stories and highest quality coverage.
Reporters faced many issues other than the immediate ones they were covering. As those who reported information to audiences who were hearing it for the first time, they often were seen as holding the opinions underlying in their stories. Because of this, they often became targets for such groups as white supremacists. In their rush to report stories that often happened at a moment’s notice, they were seen as black supporters because their message in reporting the news was framed in certain sympathetic tones. David Nevin, a reporter for several major Texas newspapers during the 1950’s and 60’s, characterized the Civil Rights Movement as “an attack on that superiority-inferiority vision enforced by violence.” (Perspectives on Reporting, 2002.) Nevin says his father, a conservative man, was moved so much by images of black men and women being attacked by police dogs in the papers, that he muttered one day, “I hope the blacks win…they deserve it.”
Media coverage of the Civil Rights Movement proves that mass communication in all its forms helped to shape the country’s political and societal definition in the 1950’s and 60’s. Portable cameras and other electronic news gathering devices enabled the medium of television to bring live events to the forefront of America’s living room. It was extremely difficult in those days for the audience to escape the images of the demonstrations, the mass riots, the human abuse or the southern law enforcement issues that took place during the modern day Civil Rights Movement. That may be due to the fact that around 1955, the number of television sets in American homes jumped from just over half to 92% of homes being equipped. (Everet, 2003.) Network television and news coverage were also expanding their time slots to take advantage of a new rapt audience. The Museum of Broadcast Communications reports that “when television covered the consumer boycotts and the school desegregation battles in the early days of the Civil Rights Movement, it was usually in a detached manner with a particular focus on the most dramatic and sensational occurrences…rarely, if ever, did black participants speak for themselves or address directly America’s newly constituted mass television audience.” (Everet, 2003.)
The press coverage at the March on Washington in 1963 was the more extensive than any previous political demonstration in United States history (Kasher, 1996.) More than 1,650 press passes were issued for the event, and the country’s leading newspapers scrambled to cover it. The demonstration was also one of the first events to be broadcast live around the world, using the new communications satellite called Telstar (Kasher, 1996.) CBS canceled six of their regular shows to air the live event. The press during the 1960’s took advantage of some new communications media to show Civil Rights events as they occurred. Though sometimes taken out of context, this method was more true to life than showing clips at the producer’s discretion.
The notion of a “liberal” national news media has been evident for several decades (Parry, 2002.) Many reporters and researchers attribute the beginnings of this theory of the “liberal media” to the early coverage by the press of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950’s. Most of the coverage offered in those days cast an overall negative slant on such things as lynchings, repression of activists, and violent protests. This national news coverage is sometimes viewed as the “origin of the conservative grievance against the ‘liberal media’.” (Parry, 2002.)
There are many enduring images that television aired continuously during the Civil Rights Movement. Some of the best examples are the 1955 boycotted buses driving down empty streets in Alabama; 1957 riots at the University of Mississippi; the 1965 march led by Martin Luther King, Jr. across a bridge in Selma, Alabama; and the 1963 attack on young Civil Rights protesters in Birmingham, Alabama, during which police and fire departments turned on the town’s fire hydrants to disperse the protestors, many of whom were children. Television images captured the water’s force pushing the young black protesters down flooded streets, “like rubbish during a street cleaning.” (Everet, 2003.)
By the late 1960’s, television had solidified itself as a powerful and provocative channel for coverage of sensitive racial issues. Images on the screen ignited controversy but also helped to put into effect such liberal legislation as the 1964 Voting Rights Act and Lyndon Johnson’s “Great Society” and “War on Poverty” Programs. Presidential slogans during the 50’s and 60’s reiterated the nation’s activism and highlighted the racial concerns of the era. Subsequent riot acts like the Watts, Detroit riots in the 1970’s put racial issues at the forefront of the news media coverage. With the end of the modern day Movement, television producers strove to include black Americans in their situation comedies and dramas in roles other than the traditional “service” roles. By the 1970’s, “rather than the intense racial conflicts of bombed-out churches, blacks being beaten by Southern cops and massive demonstrations, these dramatic programs portrayed interracial cooperation and peaceful coexistence between black and white characters.” (Everet, 2003.)
Today public communication is dominated by large, mass media organizations who still seek to sensationalize events and capitalize on the public’s general fears. In the current media environment, the American audience does not seek differences in the actions portrayed in news or television, but rather wants to more strongly identify with it. This is evident with the enormous rise and success of “reality television.” Throughout history, minorities such as the blacks during the Civil Rights Movement have sought fairer and greater representation in the media, rather than outright revolutionary transformation of the media system. (Hackett, 2000.) “Nevertheless, the reformist Civil Rights Movement has generated demands for change in the dominant media – against exclusion or stereotyping of minorities in media content, and for more diversity in media employment and ownership.” (Hackett, 2000.)
Today, Rosa Parks lies in honor at the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C. Media coverage of the event, as well as biographies of Ms. Parks, can be seen on any news channel across America. Rosa Parks is the first woman to be granted such the honor of lying in wait at the Capitol. It is an honor traditionally reserved for Presidents or soldiers. The mayor of Detroit, Kwame Kilpatrick, said last week, “We cannot do enough to pay tribute to someone who has so positively impacted the lives of millions across the world.” (Abrams, 2005.) It may be easy to forget what actions and images helped to motivate the country to destroy the notion of segregation. However, news coverage of the Civil Rights Movement “helped to galvanize public opinion and prod the government to enact and enforce laws to protect the Rights of minorities, and demolish the old system of segregation and white supremacy.” (Nelson, 2003.)
Even in today’s media environment of inclusion and tolerance, old issues still come to light about the coverage of the Movement. On July 5, 2004, the Lexington (Kentucky) Herald-Leader published an apology in their paper for failing to adequately cover and represent the Civil Rights Movement during the 1960’s. The story prominently appeared on the front page, and read, “It has come to the editor’s attention that the Herald-Leader neglected to cover the Civil Rights Movement. We regret the omission.” (Associated Press, 2004.) Photos taken for the paper covering the Movement often went unused, and recently undeveloped film taken by a photographer who worked for the paper in the 1960’s was found by a historian. Beside the story in 2004 appeared photos taken by the photographer, now developed, showing a Main Street, Lexington march and a local lunch counter sit-in. (Associated Press, 2004.) As unbelievable as this may seem, it’s easier to imagine knowing that the press coverage of the Civil Rights Movement was spotty, opinionated and fraught with constant scrutiny.
Looking back on the press coverage of the Movement is an emotional and telling experience for some reporters. In March, 1998 in Boston, celebrated news anchor Dan Rather addressed the Forum on Press Coverage of the American Civil Rights Movement. He remembered covering Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s rise to fame as an activist and speaker. He told the audience, “I was constantly aware – and my employers constantly reminded me – that my real purpose was to throw open a window for the American people to see Dr. King and his work…but as an American, as a human being, I knew I was witness to something special..” (Rather, 1998.) Rather went on to say he was targeted occasionally because he had a stronger southern accent in those days, and most people were able to discern he was from the American south. Reporters around him attempted to sway him against what he was reporting. They also assumed he did not agree with much of what he was reporting. Rather said, “The great concern of Dr. King and the other leaders of the Movement was that their message wouldn’t be heard.” He felt he was employed to give them such a voice.

Disinhibition and Conflict Online: Communication in a New Era

Imagine you are in a place where inhibitions are cast aside, and you can reveal your emotions, fears and wishes without anyone actively judging you. Everyone around you seems equal in their societal status, because you’re all in the same place after all. Your senses feel heightened and you are connected to those around you. No one will remember who you are and no one really knows you anyway, so you feel like you can open up and be yourself, even if that means acting out in anger against someone. Who cares? You’ll never see them again. No, you’re not drinking in some out- of- town bar. You’re online.
Online communication has changed the format of interactions amongst everyone from college students to professionals to parents and schoolchildren. With this format of interaction comes a new set of communication rules which are often not very clear. There is no roadmap for all who use the internet to follow a clear, concise style of conversation which succeeds in not alienating anyone, not allowing any negativity or dispute, or clearly allowing everyone to understand one another. Understanding the nature of internet conflict and how to avoid it is the first step in allowing the emergence of potentially positive insights to stem from online communication. To help aid in this process, we must discuss the following facets of online disinhibition which allow for the misunderstandings and conflict to occur. First, people online experience dissociative anonymity; second, they feel a sense of invisibility, third; they suspend time emotionally through asynchronicity; fourth, they merge reality and cyberspace with dissociative imagination; and fifth, they minimize authority and status online. (Suler, 2003.)
Keeping names hidden or encoded online can provide the user with some sense of anonymity. (Suler, 2003.) Separation from the “real”, outside world and the online world is first established in this way. When this separation occurs many people feel less vulnerable, and more open to sharing their opinions or even persuading others to share their opinions (Luehrs et al, 2001.) Not taking responsibility for actions online leads to dissociation between the authentic self and the online self. Most often this would occur in a simple online forum or chat room, where users are from different geographical locations, but may share similar interests. Another example of dissociative anonymity occurs when people engage in online dating or websites such as match.com. These sites allow users to upload photos of themselves and create profiles based on the type of people they want to attract. Often the profiles and/or the photos are not representative of the individual themselves, but rather of the image they seek to project. A growing trend among online chat rooms has involved online predators who seek to completely change their identity for the purpose of luring an unsuspecting chatter into inappropriate behavior, usually online first and then in person. These online predators engage in dissociative anonymity because they may be unable or unwilling to engage in such sexually aggressive behavior offline, but online feel powerful enough to do so.
Feeling invisible is related to being dissociated, but not exactly the same. It has more to do with the sense that the user can move around on the internet unnoticed, while he or she is still able to keep tabs on others online. Invisibility involves more of a feeling of physical absence, whereas dissociation emphasizes the mental absence. As stated in the article by John Suler, (2003), “In psychoanalysis…the analyst sits behind the patient in order to remain a physically ambiguous figure, without revealing any body language or facial expression, so that the patient has free range to discuss whatever he or she wants without feeling inhibited by how the analyst is physically reacting…Text communication offers a built-in opportunity to keep ones eye’s averted.” This is an interesting metaphor which is easily understood by those who use the internet to communicate. One example of this is the presence alerts on an instant messenger program. Most of these programs have some time of “buddy” list which allows the user to view his or her buddies online. However, they can also make themselves “invisible” online, and still be able to track their buddies’ movements online. Online predators do not fall into this category because their intent is generally to seek out the victim in person, therefore becoming “visible.”
When people have time to think about the messages they receive, they have more time to react either positively or negatively (Moussou & White, 2004.) Online interaction is not always real-time like direct conversation. It would be akin to having a conversation with someone, saying something, and having time be magically suspended until you’re ready to respond appropriately (Suler, 2003.) This example clearly shows the disengagement in interaction that conversing online can provide. The best way to understand this term is to imagine the difference in response you might have to the same person with the same question, online or in real life.
Dissociative imagination is a term used to describe the feelings about their online “worlds” that people often create. “People may feel that the imaginary characters they created exist in a different space, that one’s online persona…live in a make-believe dimension…separate and apart from the demands and the responsibilities of the real world.” (Suler, 2003.) I see this often among my friends and peers who use online gaming communities to play video games. A group meets online to play their own parts in a game which only exists on the internet.
The last facet of online disinhibition occurs when users online minimize one another’s authority and status in the real world. This status neutralization offers the user the freedom to be as open in conversation with someone of a higher status or even different gender, where in real life they would not. (Munro, 2002.) Think about being in a chat room for lonely, single stay at home moms, and revealing information to a young, gay teenager sitting in his bedroom. This is an example of how the minimization of status, gender, and position can confuse the communication online, whether intended or not. The internet becomes a “level playing field” for those sharing information through it (Suler, 2003.)
The implications of online disinhibition and conflict will only grow as we adjust to a communications medium that has changed the way we work and live forever. There are ways in which we can be more careful to avoid such conflict wherever possible. Delaying response, re-reading difficult information, discussing online chats with people offline, clarifying points made online or through email, and choosing words carefully can help to minimize the confusion (Munro, 2002.) The absence of physical cues can be a positive aspect when starting to meet people online, and eventually online relationships can be merged in direct communication. Online communication is a wonderful tool that can benefit many diverse groups seeking information, rapport and support, when it is used responsibly.

Works Cited

Luehrs, R.; Malsch, T. & Voss, K. (2001.) Internet, Discourses and Democracy. New Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence. 15, 67-74.

Moussou, M. & White, N. (2004.) Full Circle Associates webpage. Avoiding Online Misunderstandings: Avoiding Online Conflict. Retrieved November 26, 2005 from http://www.fullcirc.com/community/avoidingconflict.htm.

Munro, K. (2002.) Rider University webpage. Conflict in Cyberspace: How to Resolve Conflict Online. Retrieved December 1, 2005 from http://www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/conflict.html.

Suler, J. (2003.) The Online Disinhibition Effect. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 7, 321-326.

Instant Messaging in the Workplace: Communication Benefits and Disadvantages

“w-u-w-u?”
“n2mh, u?”
“gtgt a mtng..”
“k,cul8er!”
These phrases might seem like some strange new software jargon at first glance. But they were born as a part of the dialog and culture of a new generation of communications – the instant message. Instant messaging is a communication technology which has allowed large and small corporations alike to experience real-time conversations in a convenient and efficient internet format. What began as a way for people to keep in touch with long distance friends has become a tool used worldwide to enhance communication efforts and business practices among coworkers, supervisors and employees, and employees and their clients. Many companies believe instant messaging detracts from employee productivity and introduces new temptations to converse with others beyond their job duties. But many companies have taken the stance that with the right training and supervision, instant messaging can be used to facilitate a more aware employee / supervisor environment and a more efficient way of exchanging information. The message above reflects a casual message among friends. An instant message used in the workplace may be more complex, such as “got those reports-need by 2”
“finishing up 1min”
“lunch -59th st café?”
“sounds good, bring Carol too.”
One quarter of the American population has been estimated to use instant messaging, according to Jupiter Research, a market research firm based in New York City. (Rapaport, 2001). In addition, 42% of business internet users use instant messaging, although 70% of those users report that their company’s IT departments do not support it. (Schwartz, 2002.) This form of messaging has allowed many people, whether down the block from one another or a hemisphere away, to connect in personal ways with each other when it is most convenient for them.
The communication occurs in real-time for both parties involved. This presents a benefit over email, which is a less expeditious way to communicate. Emails and voicemails tend to pile up on each other, some never reaching their intended recipients (Schwartz, 2002). On the other hand, instant messaging allows for quick deletion, but users can print screens on their conversations if a hard copy record may be needed in the future. Dialog in instant messaging can change directions rapidly and unexpectedly, speeding the cycle of questions and responses (Rapaport, 2001.) With its speed, increased informal communications, and widespread nature, instant messaging is being used in many companies among employees as a way to gather business information in a real-time format. The face of workplace communications is changing across the corporate culture, with its benefits and disadvantages becoming obvious but often with no fundamental roadmap for those using it.
Instant messaging works through a system of lists and presence alerts. Those who are online are viewed by a user who has them listed on their “buddy” or friend/ coworker list. They can often see some type of icon next to the name of their buddy to determine how long the person has been online, and if they are actively messaging or “away” from their desk. IM users see a pop-up screen with a message when one user writes to the other. The messages are sent “real-time” and are viewable as soon as the writer hits the send button (Cameron & Webster, 2004.) Also notable is the fact that IM’s are generally much shorter, and therefore easier to read and less likely to cause misinterpretation, than email messages.
Instant messaging was seen earlier in its debut, mostly through AOL, as a tool for teenagers to chat with friends. But despite the early use in this manner, instant messaging is moving into the workplace with mixed results. Several studies indicate IM’s introduction into the workforce as primarily an individual adoption of public IM options, rather than a company –wide supporting of one method adopted through the company’s IT department (Hofte et al, 2004.) The adoption of IM into the workplace seems to support many functions, namely the following: quick questions and clarifications; coordinating impromptu work-related or phone meetings; alleviating the need for face-to-face meetings among dispersed coworkers; keeping in touch with friends and family; and in some cases, for longer and more complex discussions about work, including conferences (Hofte et al, 2004.) IM is also generally a low-cost communication method when compared to video conferencing and certain email programs.
Presence is one of the key concepts which separate instant messaging from other forms of communication. “At its most basic level, presence awareness lets users know when other people in their contact list are online.” (Vogiazou, 2002.) Presence information has grown to include more than just the basic details, such as availability and location. It can also now generate information about mood or intention based on sounds and signals transmitted from user to user. Some applications also include an “invisible” mode, allowing a user to appear online only for people in their contact list and appear “offline” for everyone else. (Vogiazou, 2002.) Most IM programs also allow the users the ability to exchange files and photos, and some even allow the option of voice chat. (Vogiazou, 2002.) There are several functions of IM which has made it an especially popular communication tool at work. The functions are: Contact list management, including various tools to determine the offline/ online presence of colleagues and friends, as well as the ability to organize people into contact groups; sending and receiving messages, which allows person-to-person contact and in some cases a chat mode for more than 2 people to communicate; presence management, which allows users to see the “state” of the users on their list, and manage their visibility to others; and a user database search, which allows users to search for others in a directory by various methods (Vogiazou, 2002.) Instant messaging’s presence functions also have a more complex purpose for management. Stamford, Connecticut based software company Gardner’s spokesperson has said, “You can take advantage of the presence detection that is incumbent with IM and broaden that presence to be a rich profile of how people should be communicated with best.” (Schwartz, 2002).
A typical example of IM applications in the workplace can be summarized by the experience of one user as interviewed in Time Magazine, 2002. A 30 year old web services coordinator, Steve Kamer, describes IM as “the most convenient way to consult co-workers and solve a problem quickly…I find it indispensable.” (Bhattacharjee, 2002.) Tom Austin, a VP at Gartner, a technology consultancy based in Stamford, Conn., says the bouncing back and forth nature of IM conversations poses a threat to users as they might miss key points and make mistakes in their communication. He says the process may mean users are not “fully engaged.” (Bhattacharjee, 2002.) Many companies now have employees who use email, cellular phones, landlines phones, internet chat, pagers, fax machines, and more on a daily basis in order to do their jobs, and instant messaging adds another communication medium to the list.
The traditional communication theory of critical mass states that “once a certain number or proportion of users (critical mass) has been attracted, use should spread rapidly throughout the community.” (Cameron & Webster, 2004.) The community being the workplace, it is easier to understand why employees are eager to use a technology that might make their lives easier or more exciting. Besides the obvious benefit of being able to quickly converse with colleagues and managers, no one wants to be the one left behind in learning to use a new technology. “The defining feature of all communication technologies is that they ‘require multiple users and cannot be used successfully by one person acting alone.’ (Cameron & Webster, 2004.)
Research firm IDC, based in Framingham, Mass., estimates that 65 million business users rely on IM products, up from 16.5 million in 1998. They also expect that number to jump to 207 million IM business users by 2006. Business owners have expressed an increased interest in IM because in most cases it cuts communication costs and increases distant collaboration (Cameron & Webster, 2004.)
According to Daft and Lengel (1984), there are “rich” forms of communication and “lean” forms. The richer forms, for example, a face-to-face meeting, would be preferable in work situations where the outcome is uncertain, and there must exist some interpersonal element. On the other end of the spectrum, leaner forms of communication such as email, instant messaging, or electronic memos are preferable in work situations in which information must be delivered and not necessary analyzed. (Daft & Lengel, 1984.) In other words, direct communication is a critical element in changing behavior and making decisions. Indirect communication focuses on quick results, but leaves no opportunity for personal affect. Although instant messaging is closer to the natural pattern of human conversation than email, it still leaves gaps in conversation direction and spontaneity. Steve Whittaker, a senior research scientist at AT&T Labs-Research in New Jersey, finds that IM is “highly effective at mimicking the complexities of actual conversations.” (Schwartz, 2002). The lack of a single IM standard is also frustrating, as programs like Yahoo Messenger, MSN Messenger, AOL’s AIM, and Lotus Notes Sametime cannot “talk” to one another. (Schwartz, 2002).
In today’s modern workplace, email has grown to be an annoyance rather than a true communication tool for many. With spam filters, many emails get deleted by accident and communication efforts are thwarted. This is where the appeal of instant messaging enters the picture. For my workplace instant messaging is not currently used but is being researched as a method for us to communicate with our offices in Canada. Our offices there are in several places, including Edmonton, Alberta; Toronto, Ontario; and Quebec, Montreal. Both the time differences and cultural barriers as far as language (in Quebec) prevent us from conversing with them the way we would like to. Management’s feeling is that instant messaging would reduce the confusion as far as who is available and who is not, who is online and who is not online, and reduce the time it would take to accomplish simple everyday tasks.
Many friends of mine who work at large corporations, such as Verizon, use the SameTime program from Lotus. This program is unique in that it allows management to create a hierarchy of employees using the tool. They can create lists which allow them access to any of their employee’s IMs at any given time. This means employees are less likely to use the tool for personal reasons. It also creates a convenient paper trail, if saved or printed, as with all IM programs. I believe the workplaces that have implemented IM have found more benefits than disadvantages. Putting this tool in place at my workplace would increase employee/ supervisor awareness, facilitate productivity and increase the need for face to face communication, as overall conversations would take place quicker.

Instant messaging is beginning to show promising results in the workplace for coworker and supervisor/ employee relationships and communication. It is an invaluable asset for today’s overworked and fast-paced corporate employees. However its limitations and communication consequences are a definite cause for concern when implementing a new program. Decreased worker productivity, lack of direct communication among members of the company, and common misinterpretations abound when using instant messaging. Personalization that verbal delivery adds is detracting from the “rich” layers of communication possible with direct communication.

Works Cited
Bhattacharjee, Y. (2002, September 16). A Swarm of Little Notes. Time Magazine, 160.

Cameron, A.F. & Webster, J. (2004). Unintended consequences of emerging communication technologies: Instant Messaging in the workplace. Computers in Human Behavior, 12, 143-160.

IM [@Work] Adoption of Instant Messaging in a Knowledge Worker Organisation,” hicss, p. 10019a, Proceedings of the 37th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS’04) – Track 1, 2004.

Rapaport, L. (2001, November). Instant Messaging for Corporate Collaboration. Transform Magazine, 3-7.

Vogiazou, Y. (2002). Wireless Presence and Instant Messaging. Knowledge Media Institute Journal, 20-7, 21-32.

Six Feet Under: Interpersonal Communcation Themes

This paper looks at themes of interpersonal communication in the first two episodes of the HBO drama series, “Six Feet Under.”
“Six Feet Under” & Themes of Interpersonal Communications

In this first episode of the series many themes begin to emerge within the Fisher family. The main themes start off as communication between the characters and evolve from those relationships. The main issue in this episode that ties everyone together is the death of Mr. Fisher. Upon hearing the news of the death of her husband, Ruth is shocked and when she relays the news to her son she says first that the new hearse is totaled, and second that Mr. Fisher is dead. This is a twist in the sequence of importance, even though as the audience we know that she is truly more upset about the death. As the days go by, Mrs. Fisher (Ruth) is insistent that the daily rituals of life continue in the same way they always have. We witness this as she yells at Claire, “You have to eat something…WE didn’t die!” It’s a similar escape for Nate, except he takes his grief outside and goes running when the going gets tough at the Fisher house.
Nate deals with the death of his father by looking back on his childhood. He remembers being scolded by his father, and the roles are reversed now with him in power, putting together his father’s mangled face for the open casket funeral. He is sad that the roles are this way and that he has outlived this man. He expresses several times the need to be next to his father again in the flesh. He seems to want to jump on the bus with him on the way to heaven and get away from his current life of mediocrity and uncertainty. In this escape mode he is reckless and has sex with a woman he meets at the airport, the woman he is with while his father is dying, and she witnesses him in the most difficult and tender moments of his life. This cements her as a key character in Nate’s life and in the rest of the series. At his father’s funeral, he experiences for himself what his clients go through every day. The triteness of the priest’s words have no meaning for him, and the salt shaker reminds him of someone “selling popcorn”.
Claire rebels from her strange family by doing drugs of unknown origin at parties and spending time with her similarly out-of-touch friends. She is experimenting with such drugs while her father is dying. The drugs heighten her pain as she experiences his death and makes the whole experience “burn a little brighter”. Thus her scenes in this episode are fast paced, anxious and sped up due to her heightened state of awareness and speed induced mind. She speeds while driving her mother to the morgue while all the time knowing her father died while driving carelessly as she is. Ruth is concerned and suddenly reaches out to her daughter, asking her questions about herself, in the worst time she could choose to do so. Claire pushes her away and continues her angry race down the road. Later on, Nate chastises her in private for doing drugs and generally looks down on her, telling her to just deal with her “bad drug experience” and making her problems seem petty in light of the fact their father has died and he now has to identify his body.
David, the younger brother, seems to be the strong and dependable one who has stayed on with the family business while his rebellious brother ran away. But we can see his soft side as he cries on his lover’s shoulder during the funeral. The soft side of David is ironic because in the relationship between him and Keith, his boyfriend, he becomes the more dominating one, telling him to stay away from his family so his being gay won’t be revealed to them. He can’t bear the thought of anyone knowing this, and he refrains from hand holding and standing too close to Keith during the services, even though Keith is only there to comfort him and pay his respects. This is also ironic because he has never been introduced to Mr. Fisher when he was alive, we can assume because he was being hidden from him by David. Keith is honoring a man who had he been alive, would probably have not approved of his relationship with his son. No one there knows or cares who Keith is because he seems so insignificant to them, even though he is the person who means the most to David. David also claims he can’t reveal his being gay because his family will “fall apart—that’s what they do.” What he does, his “job” and role in the family, is to stay strong for them and keep them glued together.
Ruth expresses grief in her own delayed fashion during her husband’s death. She hides everything at first, then later shocks everyone with her breakdowns at odd moments. She throws dirt with her own hands on his grave; seemingly she needs to understand first person how real death is and how his body will be one with the earth from now on. She gets her hands “dirty” and makes the funeral seem more real to everyone there, following Nate’s speech about how phony the whole thing seems. She cries on her son’s shoulder while telling him about her sordid extramarital affair in which she went camping with a fellow churchgoer. She apologizes for wanting to be with someone who wasn’t so serious and tied to the funeral business—she just wanted to feel alive and go camping. She becomes a child who wants to play with her toys and Nate takes the role of her parent, soothing her and letting her vent about her self-hatred for the affair.
At the end of the episode we catch a glimpse of the anger that has been building between Nate and David. Nate has abandoned his family and their family business and this angers David. He feels left with the burden of carrying on the family name and seeing his family fall apart. Nate lives in a “dump” in another city and is a “bag-boy” at a health food grocery, still trying to find his way in the world in his mid-thirties and feeling ashamed, even though he defends his position in life. There seems to be some guilt on his part and when Ruth asks him to stay “for a few days” after the funeral, Nate agrees and says he can “make a few phone calls”. We are left with the feeling that Nate is not leaving much behind in Seattle, and that he wants to take the role of caretaker away from David a little at this point. Due to Brenda entering the picture, and the connection he now needs from the family he has left, he may believe there is something worth pursuing in this town afterall.

Electronic Communication: Is it replacing traditional forms?

Electronic Communication: Is it replacing traditional forms?

Abstract

This paper documents several cases which highlight the ways in which email has replaced direct communication in the workplace today. The studies range from examining United States employees, to United Kingdom and Australian employees, all of whom cite the same issues. Workers feel isolated from each other and from their superiors due to email becoming the expected method of conversation. Email in particular has also impacted employees’ production at work by straining their time and forcing them to sift through needless spam emails. The overflow of email is causing fatigue and stress to increase among workers. Other issues that have arisen from the electronic communication surge have involved misuse of email, such as sending email to the wrong person, sending an offensive email, grammar and spelling mistakes, inappropriate and time-wasting chain emails and jokes. Email is becoming the favored method of communication, preferred even over face-to-face or telephone conversation. The paper seeks to discover why email may be considered so favorable through discussing studies which ask employees themselves what their motive is for using it. At the same time, researchers realize that email lacks the depth of personal conversations such as insinuations, tone and pitch of voice, emotion, personality and meandering thought processes. Researchers believe that direct, “rich” forms of communication are critical to changing employees’ behavior. Employees also reported that they prefer more relaxed electronic mail guidelines from their company as opposed to more restrictive policies that might limit their usage and their communication with each other. The last issue which is discussed is the growing concern of employers trying to trace the amount of, and limit the offensive or non work related content of, electronic communication among their employees.

Literature Review
The sources for obtaining the information came from several places. The most informative and in-depth studies were found in the online academic journals of Mass Media Complete and Lexis Nexis Academic Universe. The studies researched use both quantitative and qualitative methods of research, including polls, surveys, interviews, and observation. Surveys and company questionnaires were conducted by various consulting groups for large organizations and for government agencies to determine statistics such as the number of employees who use email on a daily basis. For the more personal information, such as how workers feel about their communication and email usage, researchers used methods such as employee observation and job shadowing, and interviews amongst different levels of employees. The workers were then further separated in some cases into groups of “beginner” type internet and email users and those who were more advanced users. Some of the research was based on focus groups who were asked various questions about email use at their jobs and their answers were compared to one another. Psychological foundations conducted research on the mental effects of email use among employees, such as in the case of the North West News in Australia. Hacker et al researched a group of university employees who worked at the library on campus, broke down their knowledge of the email systems, and evaluated the users. They were interviewed and audiotape, and then their responses were analyzed. The qualitative nature of the interviews allowed the researchers to develop a questionnaire with open ended questions for the employees. Most questionnaires, as in this case, said they used Likert-style questioning with a balanced continuum. The remainder of information discussed came from news websites which discussed email policy issues and situations.

Electronic Communication in the Workplace

The evolution of electronic communication is taking the place of direct, personal communication in today’s workplace. It has also altered the way workers engage in conversation with each other and their superiors. Electronic or email has significantly changed the methods people speak to one another, handle their workday, and deal with stress on a daily basis. One critical focus in this issue is email replacing essential face-to-face communications between people and alienating them in the process. Email and electronic messaging is also becoming more a part of people’s workday as they struggle to respond to important messages while filtering out “spam” and unsolicited emails. In addition to the issues electronic communications raises, it also has an undeniably important place in the corporate world, streamlining processes and creating an open dialogue between coworkers who may otherwise never correspond with one another.
One study conducted by Ivey School of Business Professor Christina Cavanaugh (2004) studied the impact of emails on workers’ production. Cavanaugh’s study found that employees are working longer hours to compensate for overflowing emails. Approximately 72% of workers are dealing with more email that just one year ago, and 56% feel their emails are causing fatigue and wasting time. The average American received about 54 workplace email per day which is up 1% from 2002, and spam emails increased by 41%. (Cavanaugh, 2004.)
In Cavanaugh’s study, she mentions that a concern is the “productivity we sacrifice by decreasing face-to-face communication for email. A survey respondent was quoted as saying, ‘My manager sends me an email, then follows up on it with another email five days later- we work in the same office; why didn’t he just drop in to see me?’” (Cavanaugh, 2004.) This type of avoidance with direct communication seemingly causes workers to feel isolated from their coworkers and from the work environment.
In an article from the Wall Street Journal (Hymowitz, 1999) the author talks about her own experience with an email misuse. ‘ “You there?” read one email recently from a nearby editor. “Yes, “ I quickly wrote back, “but I’m on the phone right now, I’ll call you as soon as I get off.” Before I could do that, however, the editor shot back another email, outlining a story idea he hoped a reporter on my staff would check out.’ (Hymowitz, 1999.) She talks about the email as an invasion of her office life, but more importantly, about what is lost through the act of email and how it preys on her time.
One staff editor keeps the author abreast of her every activity through email rather than telling her face-to-face (Hymowitz, 1999.) A friend of the author admits he comes to work a full hour earlier than he used to just to keep ahead of his email overload. She says he tells her that “he answers each email as carefully as he would old-fashioned letters, even though he receives at least 30 messages a day.” (Hymowitz, 1999.) He sees it as being disrespectful to the sender to send back an email with spelling and grammar mistakes. (Hymowitz, 1999.)
Cavanaugh also points out that email may be leading to endless paper trails and avoidance of the telephone, which perhaps is a more personal method of workplace communication. Workers are tending to dread their daily stream of useless emails and are worn out by trying to manage ridiculous amounts of information. As Hymowitz says (1999), her boss is so afraid to delete any piece of info that someone sent to him, he recently had to slog through emails for 3 to 4 minutes, looking for a specific document. In addition, there are numerous issues raised by hitting the “send” button before double checking your information. Sending email to the wrong person, offending workers with inappropriate chain jokes and letters, and harassment in the form of email have all been cited in various workplaces across the country. (Cavanaugh, 2004.)
This point is further illustrated by a study done in the United Kingdom which polled about one thousand full and part time employees carried out for the Department of Trade and Industry. According to Karen McLaughlin, of the Evening Gazette in 2004, more than a third of the study’s employees have suffered misinterpretation of their email to a coworker. Twenty-one percent of participants reported experiencing a communication “faux pas” due to bad email timing. Employment Relations Minister Gary Sutcliffe said, “A more relaxed work culture and a rise in the use of modern technology such as email have resulted in great benefits for businesses. But get the tone or timing wrong, and there could be tensions and a breakdown in communication at an individual level.” (McLaughlin, 2004.)
Australians are also feeling the effects of email overload. A study done by the Australian Psychological Society surveyed 500 male and 500 female senior managers at various companies. (Northwest News, 2005.) Sixty-nine percent of respondents said they were stressed by having to deal with a daily avalanche of electronic mail. (Northwest News, 2005.) Researcher Amanda Gordon said, who headed the study, reported that 80 percent of respondents spent more than 20 percent of their workday dealing with emails. (Northwest News, 2005.)
According to Daft and Lengel (1984), there are “rich” forms of communication and “lean” forms. The richer forms, for example a face-to-face meeting, would be preferable in work situations where the outcome is uncertain, and there must exist some interpersonal element. On the other hand, leaner forms of communication such as email or memos are favorable in situations where information must be delivered and not necessarily analyzed. (Daft & Lengel, 1984.) However, Research by Sullivan (1995) conducted among corporate workers shows that email communication is favored over face-to-face meetings for activities such as delivering documents and circulating memos, and it is also preferred over telephone communication when requesting information, answering questions, assigning tasks, maintaining an office schedule, coordinating activities, and drafting documents. (Sullivan, 1995.)
In a survey outlined in Business Communications Review (2003) it was found that a large majority of businesses believe email to be a more effective tool for business communication than the telephone. The survey, done by Meta Group, listed three major reasons for this: first, that email facilitates communication with multiple partners; second, email enables more rapid communication; and third, email generates a written record of the interaction. (BCR, 2003.) A record of a particular email can be saved or archived and returned back to for reference or for proof of sent status.
According to Sproull and Kiesler (1986), it was recognized that email was written in a conversational style, but that it lacked important clues like tone of voice and facial expression that detracted from the communication experience. Because of those factors, many email conversations need to be checked for insinuations, accusatory tones and etiquette issues, possibly more closely than verbal communication needs to be, because it is easily misinterpreted. The spell check functions of many word and email programs and various other tools do not have any feature that enables the user to watch the tone of their email.
According to the Wall Street Journal’s Career Journal, Professor David Kaufer, of Carnegie Mellon University and founder of Eudora, has created a new feature on Eudora mail called “MoodWatch.” This is an email program which censors the emails created for intimidating words and phrases, suggestive phrases, or confrontational wording that may be offensive to the recipient of the email. (Weber, 2000.) The program, which can be shut off during use, features an ice cube on the side of the email creation screen. (Weber, 2000). If the email starts verging on what Kaufer calls “flaming”, the ice cube turns into a chili pepper. The more chili peppers that appear, the more volatile your email could be perceived as. When three chilies are earned, the user is warned before sending their email, “Your message…is the sort of thing that might get your keyboard washed out with soap.” This innovative program searches for opinionated phrasing such as “That’s a stupid idea,” heated denials like, “I’m not about to….” and remarks that are a little paranoid, like “Why is everyone…?” (Weber, 2000.)
Rosen (2005) mentions an interview with Angela Sinickas, owner of Sinickas Communications Inc. Sinickas says that “Face-to-face communication is critical in changing behavior.” This is more evident than ever now, with many companies striving for deliverance of their “mission statement” through means such as company-wide intranets, newsletters, and email memos, and yet more workers reported feeling depressed and chained down by information overload. (Rosen, 2005.) Hymowitz (1999) says “the instant connection email offers has a steep cost. Some of my colleagues are openly annoyed when, instead of responding to their email with more mail, I stop by their desks with a verbal response. They seem to have forgotten that face-to-face conversations meander in unexpected ways and often yield new discoveries.”
Rosen also mentions the communication richness theory which is used in the studies by Daft & Lengel. She writes, “Story-telling, social interaction and gossip are rich channels, unlike formal corporate media such as handbooks, memos and newsletters. Conversation helps people truly understand an issue and see its relevance, leading to behavior change.” Peer-to-peer communication involves many layers, all spontaneous and open to a supervisor or coworker adding to the conversation. In electronic communication, no one can simply join in or add to what has been written in quite the same way. (Rosen, 2005.)
Rosen says one study involving a company of 600 employees and 67 managers revealed the following about workplace conversations and the workplace “Grapevine”. The grapevine will increase in response to formal communication at work. If the company is not communicating much in this way, the grapevine remains quieter. The reason for this seems to be that supervisors are reading formal media and then communicating it among their employees. (Rosen, 2005.) The opinion is not led by one person all the time. People prefer talking to someone at their own level at work and not “up the ladder” from them. People prefer talking to people in their own departments unless they are in staff positions. (Rosen, 2005.) What is important about the Grapevine is that most of its communication is direct and does not involve electronic communication unless communicated from a higher organizational level. (Rosen, 2005.)
Using surveys, questionnaires with Likert type scales, and group interviews, Dawley and Anthony (2003) conducted studies on employees’ perception of email and its usage. Employees reported email had reduced the number of meetings they had to attend, taking time away from their desk, which they thought increased their productivity. (Dawley & Anthony, 2003.) They also said emails could replace phone conversations, could be used as a time management tool for them, and generally saved them time. Over half of the respondents reported they felt confident that they could communicate effectively through email. (Dawley & Anthony, 2003.)
Due to the high mean and significant numbers of survey respondents who agreed with specific questions which addressed email as a “rich” form of communication, Dawley & Anthony (2003) found that the majority of employees did think email replaced richer forms of communication in the workplace. The respondents’ answers did not differ significantly when compared across gender, education variances, or job levels. They did, however, differ significantly among people with higher and lower years of email experience. (Dawley & Anthony, 2003.)
In studies done by Hacker et al (1998), employees expressed that they felt opposed to email policies that regulated their use of email. They used qualitative data methods to determine employees generally favor guidelines for use to restrictive policies. These less restrictive guidelines allow employees to feel like they can communicate across more levels within the email system, therefore reaching more contacts and creating a stronger network of ties at work (Hacker et al, 1998.) They also point out that unlike the telephone, email use does not involve a system of voicemails and unanswered calls. When the email is received, a response gets generated (usually.) In summary, there is no such thing as “email tag”.
New electronic monitoring companies have allowed companies to not only trace their employees’ email communication, but conduct surveillance as well. Screen shots can be captured and keystroke monitoring is utilized. (Case & Young, 2004.) In a study done by the American Management Association of 1627 managers, nearly 50% of companies monitor their employees email use, 63% monitor their internet use, and 89% monitor their employees in general. (Case & Young, 2004.)
In conclusion, electronic communication has proven to be an invaluable asset for employees in today’s fast-paced workplace. However, its limitations and problems are a definite cause for concern. Decreased worker productivity, lack of direct communication among workers, and the misinterpretations email can cause are all major concerns in the workplace. Personalization of a verbal delivery adds a rich layer to the way workers converse with one another, and this element is missing from electronic communication. Although workers feel connected through email, they seem to be most isolated when they replace direct speaking with email communication. These issues are worth investigating further, as are the issues of time management and employee stress as they both relate to email.

References

Anthony, W. P. & Dawley, D. D. (2003). User Perceptions of Email at Work. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 17, Iss. 2.

Case, C. J. & Young, K. S. (2004) Internet Abuse in the Workplace: New Trends in Risk Management. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, Vol. 7 Iss. 1.

Daft, R. & Lengel, R. (1984). Information Richness: A New Approach to Manager Information Processing and Organizational Design. Research in Organizational Behavior. Ed. Barry Staw and Laurence Cummings. JAI 1984.

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Forensic Rhetoric

Introduction
Have you ever watched an episode of “Law and Order” on television? If so, you’ve seen forensic rhetoric in action. FORENSIC RHETORIC deals with the accusation (kategoria) or defense (apologia) of someone, usually in seen in court settings in contemporary times. Aristotle believed that someone using forensic rhetoric must be keenly aware of justice versus injustice, and the use of words to achieve an understanding of both sides of the argument. A detective is questioning a suspect in the holding room, and he says, “When you saw your boyfriend with another woman, you were mad and you wanted revenge. Didn’t you?” The detective is presenting facts in the past tense and coming to the accusatory end of his argument. He hopes the end result will be the suspect confessing to the crime. This is a simplified example of how forensic rhetoric works.
Definition
Forensic rhetoric, as opposed to deliberate rhetoric, is based on past actions to bring truth to the forefront of the audience’s mind. The purpose of forensic rhetoric is twofold: accusation on one hand and defense on the other. Some scholars refer to this type of rhetoric as “judicial rhetoric” because of the way speakers engage both sides of a story to make their points. In a courtroom setting, forensic rhetoric is the speaking that allows the audience and the speaker to concentrate on the argument at hand by engaging in various methods of rhetoric known as appeals. The appeals can take three different directions to persuade the audience (in a courtroom setting, the audience would be the jury mainly, and the others in the courtroom as well.) The three types of rhetoric appeals are appeals based on ethos, the use of ethical or character appeal; pathos, the appeal by using emotion; or logos, the appeal of logic and reasoning.
Examples of Appeal
To examine how each of these types of appeals would enhance the rhetoric of the speaker, let us look at some real-life examples of how each might work. Let us first talk about ethos. Aristotle observed in Rhetoric that the speaker’s character through his speech “may almost be called the most effective means of persuasion he possesses.” (Biesecker-Mast, 1994). Suppose an attorney representing a person on trial for murder was appealing for his defense. The attorney is well-known for representing other clients who have since had their names cleared and gone on to write books and become prominent members of the community. The attorney has a reputation for finding the truth even before he begins his latest defense. The jury will listen to his words and judge him according somewhat to his character and display of fine work from his past. He may even refer to past cases in which he was able to succeed in getting the defendant released. This is an example of how ethos works. Ethos may also come into play if the defendant himself is an esteemed member of society and takes the stand. He may defend himself by explaining that he works with the local chapter of the Boy Scouts and has worked in counseling for troubled teenagers during the course of his career. By establishing a positive character for himself, the audience is going to hear what he says in a different and more positive light.
Pathos is best seen in an example of a witness who shows emotion on the witness stand. The attorney may be questioning the witness, attempting to win sympathy from the jury for his client. He asks the witness questions to test her emotional strength and when she breaks down in tears as she recounts her story, the audience will identify with her emotion, and her testimony will hold more of a meaning for them. It’s easier to identify pathos by listening for descriptive words that elicit emotional responses from the audience. For example, the other attorney’s closing remarks may say something about the defendant’s “cold demeanor at the horrifically bloody and brutal crime scene.” The jury is persuaded to view the defendant as being a cold and calculating murderer and in turn, view the victim and their family with compassion and empathy.
The appeal using logos, or logic, is more complex. Aristotle wrote in his work Rhetoric that one of the aspects of forensic rhetoric is that for one side, the speaker must “..prove that they are trustworthy and authoritative… but if they [the audience] support our opponents, we must do the opposite.” (Rydberg-Cox, 2003). Logos is a pragmatic approach which often uses written laws, rules or documents to prove something. Logos also persuades the audience to one side of the argument by offering practical reasons for actions. There must be a logical chain of reasoning which connects and supports all arguments to be effective. Oftentimes logos is prevalent in academic or judicial arguments because cases from the past are often drawn upon in making a decision. One example of logos in our courtroom setting would be a closing argument, after appeal to emotion is completed. “Ladies and gentleman,” the attorney might say, “ we have so far heard the testimony of witness A and witness B. Witness A has lied to police on two occasions. Witness B is a proven drug abuser. The only other witness to the crime is dead.” These are factual statements, drawing to a conclusion that both witnesses are not reliable based on true events and emphasizing that the dead cannot defend themselves. (This is one example of enthymeme, or an unspoken truth. The attorney did not specifically state that dead men don’t talk, but it is implied and understood by the audience anyway.)
History of Forensic Rhetoric
Forensic rhetoric was first seen and discussed in Greece (Athens) between 350-500 A.D. This is due to the fact that society began to rely more and more on written materials used as evidence in courts, and also on documenting new laws, revising old laws, and the prolific writing of books and journals (Rydberg-Cox, 2003). Although philosophists have always known that persuasion was the main goal of rhetoric in its infancy, forensic rhetoric allowed for the exploration of various methods of persuasion as described in the last section. There are two early works which demonstrate much of the effectiveness of forensic rhetoric and its various strategies: Gorgias’s “Palamedes” and Plato’s “Apology.”
In Gorgias’s “Palamedes,” his character uses forensic strategies to establish his reputation with the audience, defend himself and then cast doubt on his accuser, Odysseus. In this work, Palamedes not only makes himself credible by telling the audience what a good person he is and how he is innocent, but he then turns on Odysseus and attacks his credibility. He appeals to the jury’s character by telling them if they convict him, they will have been deceived and wrong. In Plato’s “Apology,” the character of Socrates discredits his accusers by going after their reputation and he even asks the jury to question their decision because they may not be fit to render such a decision. This must have struck a chord with the deity- worshipping jury. Both works also use similar rhetorical means throughout.
Each situation pits an accused man against his accusers. Each accuser finds a claim to refute (the accusation.) Each accused man professes he is going to provide the jury with the truth, which the opposing side lacks. Both of the accused men tell the jury they are going to provide a logical chain of evidence that proves they are innocent. Each accused man draws upon his character in the past to show the jury that such an ethical man could not have committed a crime. And each of the men advise the jury that by finding him guilty, that they are in fact in violation of the truth which they seek.Forensic rhetoric has been used throughout history in many debates, discussions, arguments, courtroom dramas, and speeches.
I chose to focus primarily on courtroom rhetoric because it easily and clearly illustrates the aspects of this type of speaking. Other instances of its use that people in the last few years may be familiar with are its use in the trying of various famous people for crimes. Bill Clinton debated the meaning of the word “is” when he was asked about his affair with Monica Lewinsky. Although he was not on trial at the time, he was answering back to reporters and to the American public during a press conference. Clinton’s intent was to confuse his audience by making them question the validity of their own accusations. Another example would be the courtroom scenes we witnessed with the trial of O.J. Simpson being tried for murdering his wife and her friend. In this case, emotional and dramatic speeches as well as character attacking and overly simplistic emphases swayed the jury this way and that. There was emphasis by speech about the glove at the scene which was played over and over, each time with more fervor, each time the attorneys attempting to convict Simpson with the sheer coincidence of a bloody glove at the scene. Simpson’s attorneys tried to relax and comfort the jury and also identify with the members of the jury who most closely fit Simpson’s demographic of a middle aged, black man. Finally, his repeated use of the catchy phrase, “If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit!” rang throughout the audience’s ears. This was a simplified method of getting the audience to repeat a phrase which made Simpson appear not guilty.

References
Biesecker-Mast, G.J. (1994). Forensic Rhetoric and the Constitution of the Subject: Innocence, Truth, and Wisdom in Gorgias’s “Palamedes” and Plato’s “Apology.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly, 24, 3/4, pp148-166.
Johnstone, H.W., Jr.(1999). Wedge and Bridge: a Note on Rhetoric as Distinction and as Identification. Rhetoric Society Quarterly, 29, 2, pp75-78.
Mangum, G.C. & Mangum, A.B. (1983). Forensic Rhetoric and Invention: Composition Students as Attorneys. College Composition and Communication, 34,1, pp43-56.
Rydberg-Cox, J.A. (2003). Oral and Written Sources in Athenian Forensic Rhetoric. Mnemosyne Journal, 56, 6.